The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep. The neurophysiological mechanisms of the postural and motor events during desynchronized sleep. This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. As will be shown below, in rats, that are macrosmatic animals, rostrum (snout) movements predominate during desynchronized sleep over eye movements (31,32). Psychoanalysis also considers dreams as the expression of repressed wishes; this is undoubtly true as to only a few dreams, whereas several studies reveal, instead, that most dreams are closely related to the events of the previous day, as Aristotle had already demonstrated. Instead, they thought that dreams were not provoked by spirits, ghosts or gods, which took over the mind to express themselves through dreaming. Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. 34. 31. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. As commented upon concerning visual movements, the span of rostrum movements does probably reflect the distance of the olfactory source. Hodes R, Dement WC. Generally, in humans oniric activity is expressed as eye movements, what is obviously linked to vision as the main human sensory channel. Sleeping and Waking. In: Pompeiano, O. 20. Table 1 shows the results of some of such studies, including our data concerning nearly 2,000 dreaming episodes recorded from rats. In the past, most civilizations boasted having wise people who could tell the meaning of dreams if conveniently paid for that, a fancy profession that still has its counterparts in modern nations. eCollection 2020. Front Neurol. Recordings of the electrical activity of the brain, which we will refer to as electro-oscillograms, reveal specific patterns that express the phases of sleep in several central regions of the brain, including the phase during which most oniric activity takes place, the desynchronized or paradoxical sleep. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of motor activity in man. WebWhen a person entered rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, it activates circuits within the brain stem. Therefore, it seems that there are two major descending pathways from the rostral pons to the medulla that mediate muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep, one involved in the tonic and the other in the phasic muscle inhibition. Progr Neurobiol 1984;22:241-88. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. Desseilles M, Dang-Vu TT, Sterpenich V, Schwartz S. Conscious Cogn. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). 2. The hypothesis has been recently put forward by Revonsuo (2000) that the function of dreaming is to simulate threatening events, and to rehearse threat perception and threat avoidance (111). eCollection 2017. Often eye movements are preceded in the electroencephalogram by small sawthoot-waves that superimpose on desynchronized potentials (figure 3). 130. Wilson MA, McNaughton BL. Analysis of psychological theories concerning functions of dreams. The earliest theory to emerge, Freuds psychoanalytic theory, takes an observational approach to identifying the function that dreams serve. Freud theorized that dreams are the result of unfulfilled wishes or desires in the subjects life. 41. In Greece dreams were called oneiros, a word that originated the adjective oniric but that meant not exactly what was dreamed about neither the dreaming process, which was not rated as something important, but the phantasmata, i.e. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Stimulus response theory of dream: The stimulus response theory which existed prior to Freud is based upon the associationistic stimulus response view. This theory stresses the relationship between brain changes during sleep and changes in perceptual efficiency. Some disturbing stimuli force activity into one portion of the cerebral cortex. Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. 62. Careers. 107. It is likely that even strong stimuli may be ineffective in producing an arousal during sleep if they are trivial, whereas light stimulation containing relevant information may be highly efficient. In humans it has been shown that not only EEG desynchronization but also increase in vegetative functions, such as heart rate and ventilation (27), accompany mental activity. 88. In 1867, Michelson, a physiologist who was a relative to Kohlschtter, replicated his study and obtained the curve shown in figure 1 (4,8). Erlbaum, 1992. 65. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. (eds.) By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). Hobson JA, Pace-Schott EF, Stickgold R. Dreaming and the brain: toward a cognitive neuroscience of conscious states. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. According to Hobson, Pace-Schotter & Stickgold (2000), since image studies show activation of "limbic" and "paralimbic" structures of the forebrain during desynchronized sleep, as compared to wakefulness (120,126-128), emotion may be a primary shaper of dream plots, rather than playing a secondary role plot instigation. Perspective of Motor Behavior and its Neural Basis. Shiromani PJ, Lai yy, Siegel JM. The leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. In fact, it does frequently occur when movements are expressed as high frequency potentials. To discuss this issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses. Ann Rev Psychol 1990;41:557-884. Such patterns mimic oniric eye movements, which may occur in functional coincidence or not with the visual scenes that are dreamed of. 2021 Aug 30;24(2):543. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2021.543. doi: 10.1093/nc/nix009. Rados R, Cartwright RD. J Physiol (Paris) 1984;79:365-74. The PGO potentials are correlates of dreams. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. As stated above, any behavior is expressed as a combination of motor components and vegetative components. 2017 May 31;2017(1):nix009. 33. If the animal is trying to identify the source of an odor that is located at a large distance, snout movements are expected to span wide angles at low frequencies, whereas when the source is near such movements are expected to span narrow angles, at high frequencies, just as during wakefulness. & Ajmone-Marsan, C. As any neural information, it has to be analyzed, so that the nervous impulses, which carry it be decoded and integrated as a specific neural configuration, that contains all the information released (or revoked) from the mnemonic archives. 32. In cats, Baust (1971) recorded tachycardia starting 1 or 2 seconds before eye movements appear (38). Despite several demonstrations that this hypothesis is correct, a few argue against such a view. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. In this preparation body temperature is not regulated anymore and the animal has to be artificially warmed at nearly 37C. Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan 77. Animal experimentation, by making it possible to implant electrodes in any part of the nervous system and to lesion and stimulate (electrically or chemically) also any nucleus or pathway, has been of the utmost relevance for the understanding of the mechanisms causing not only sleep but also the manifestations of dreaming. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. However, considering the high prevalence of dreams during this phase it should be more appropriately named oniric phase of sleep. During the nineteenth century several physiologists and neuropsychiatrists tried to understand the mechanisms and meaning of dreams. Pompeiano O. To what degree, and in what way, implications can be drawn from these findings for the psychology of dreaming is controversial. Phenomenal dream content, however, is not as disorganized as such views imply. The preferential eye movements direction may be related to the dream content and, perhaps, as such also to hemispheric dominance but it should always be taken into consideration that any movement originated by a dream is always faulty, otherwise we would perform normal behaviors during a dream, what does not happen due to the inhibition of motoneurons. In 1944 Obhlmeyer, Brilmayer & Uhlstrung (10) observed that in humans penile erection occurs during sleep at intervals of 85 minutes, which is the average duration of a sleep cycle. 120. Rerum Natura, I et II. Nature 1989;340:474-6. Bourgin P, Escourrou P, Gaultier C, Adrien J. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:1008-9. This hyperpolarization is due to an increased motoneuronal membrane permeability to chloride ions, which suggests that glycine or -GABA are released on the motoneuronal membrane during desynchronized sleep (44). Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). In fact, we ignore almost completely why we dream. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. Maquet et al. Gottesmann C. Theta rhythm: the brain stem involvement. National Library of Medicine J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. Since evoking visual reminiscences during wakefulness and the building up of dreams with visual information are dependent on the visual cortex, both facts can be correlated. NeuroReport 1995;6:532-6. Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. 25. 126. In: M. C. Hepp-Reymond & G. Marini (eds.) Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:793-842. Sigmund Freuds theory of dreams suggests that dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish fulfillment, and motivations. There are many hypotheses to account for the existence of dreams but it is still a matter of debate why and what for we dream. 4. Moruzzi's coined the name desynchronized sleep, which we prefer, because in humans desynchronization is the main electrophysiological marker of this phase. Behav Brain Sci 2000;23:867-76. Grimm R, Tischmeyer W. Complex patterns of immediate gene induction in rat brain following brightness discrimination training and pseudotraining. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. Timo-Iaria C. Early research on dreaming. (1962) clearly demonstrated that in the cat blood diastolic pressure falls deeply to around 60 mmHg, beginning as soon as the electrocorticogram starts to desynchronize. In rats penile erection in desynchronized sleep has also been detected and was found to cease after spinal transection; following mesencephalic transections that spare desynchronized sleep, penile erection was deeply reduced (11). The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Mori S, Matysuyama K, Kohyama J, Kobayashi y, Takakusaki K. Neuronal constituents of postural and locomotor control systems and their interactions in cats. While Freud makes many intuitive 136. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. However, reflex penile erection is facilitated after spinal transection whereas mesencephalic transections significantly increase the latency to its reflex induction, without affecting the percentage of tests eliciting an erectile event. Dement WC. J Neurophysiol 1977;40:284-95. 6. The motoneuron inhibition, responsible for the sleep atonia and abolition of movements, is not complete in infancy (figure 5). For instance, zif-268 has been shown to induce the expression of a synapse-specific protein, synapsin II (101), and has been linked to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (102,103) and other plasticity phenomena. 30. In: Baust, W. Geschichte der Physiologie. No wonder that most dreams in humans have a visual component, explaining the reason why eye movements occur in any kind of dream, alone or as part of non-visual dreams. Considering that desynchronization is predominant all over the cortex in humans and in the frontal cortex of both cats and rats, we consider it to be a phylogenetically more recent functional acquisition. In some animals, however, a reduction of heart rate and respiration may occur, what also happens during an attentive wakefulness if they are threatened. In cats, Thomas & Benoit (18) have found oniric activity during synchronized sleep, similar to what we described in rats as pre-paradoxical sleep (19,20) as intermediate phase. Induction of rapid eye movement sleep by carbachol infusion into the pontine reticular formation of the rat. Exptl Neurol 1963;8:93-111. 12. Steriade M, McCarley RW. Shiromani PJ, Winston S, McCarley RW. Dreaming has been a subject of cogitation since remote Antiquity. Nature, 2002, submitted. Physiol Behav 1974;12:293-5. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. At the age between 7 and 9 years Foulkes' subjects produced much more consistent narrations of the dream content, as should be expected (24). We spend a lot of time sleeping. 132. 60. ), Ermdung, Schlaf un Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:123-172. In more recent years several approaches confirmed these findings (89). 127. Sci Am 1990;263:86-8,90-2,94-6. This is for sure the most enigmatic issue about dreaming. WebPhysiological function Theory regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. John Wiley and Sons, New york 1982. Web5 Theories on dreaming . When a dream has a verbal content the tongue, lips and other facial muscles do contract and if the dream is deambulatory several lower limb muscles do contract, expressing the behavior triggered by the imagined walking. 109. However, human oniric behaviors are also expressed as lips, tongue and facial movements, as well as fingers, toes and whole limbs jerks, as described above. WebDreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Behav Brain Res 1997;84:109-16. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). We spend a lot of time sleeping. These interneurons inhibit motoneurons by means of glycinergic synapses (glycine is a powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter), as shown by Soja et al. eCollection 2019. C R S Soc Biol 1978;172:9-21. A powerful defensive behavior, the withdrawal "reflex" (or retraction behavior, as we prefer to call it), is also completely inhibited during this phase of sleep. Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). Desynchronization is the rule, during this phase, in all cortical electro-oscillograms in humans and other primates. Christy B, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the growth factor-inducible protein Zif268. Rothschuch KR. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:13-22. Nucleus reticularis pontis oralis is thought to contain the generator of theta rhythm (78,79) and is known to send direct efferents to the hippocampus and the cerebellar cortex, where we found theta waves that correlate closely with those in the hippocampus (Valle, Kubo, Iwamoto & Timo-Iaria, in preparation for publication). Mol Brain Res 1996;38:77-84. 70. Around 80 per cent of such motor activity was found to occur during desynchronized sleep, what points to its participation in dreaming activity. Hobson JA. WebThis theory also implies that dreams are not independently functional but rather a coproduct of the sleeping brain, reflecting the dreamers physiological and psychological 2022 Nov 3;12(11):1832. doi: 10.3390/jpm12111832. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. Silent functional magnetic resonance imaging demonstrates focal activation in rapid eye movement sleep. Vertes RP. 134. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. Klein M, Michel F, Jouvet M. tude polygraphique du sommeil chez les oiseaux. Bookshelf WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. Europ J Neurosci 1994;6:1298-1306. Accessibility Desynchronized sleep in early life may be an indicator for the degree of brain maturation and promoter of further brain maturation. Eine Methodik der Ableitung localisierter Potentialschwankungen aus subcortikalen Hirngebieten. Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C, Sameshima K, yamashita R. Theta waves and behavioral manifestations of alertness and dreaming activity in the rat. 117. Brain Res 1979;176:233-54. Modifications of recurrent discharge of the alpha motoneurons during sleep. Consciousness in waking and dreaming: the roles of neuronal oscillation and neuromodulation in determining similarities and differences. Electrical potentials recorded from the medial vestibular nuclei precede eye movements by 20 to 30 milliseconds, which points to these nuclei as the last synaptic stations in the pathway that produces eye movements during desynchronized sleep. Plato, despite his logical view of dreams, antecipated by 24 centuries one of the dogmas of psychoanalysis, stating that the dreams with a sexual background, mainly those with an incestuous content, and those in which the dreamer attacked or even killed someone, did, in fact, represent occult wishes that only could be fulfilled without punishment as an oniric experience. Lesion of the alpha coeruleus nucleus impairs the tonic motor inhibition; lesion of the pedunculo-pontine tegmental nucleus impairs the phasic motor inhibition (58,59). Stern W, Forbes WN, Morgane PJ. With Darwin (1965), we are fully convinced that "at least birds and mammals do dream" (6). J Neurophysiol 1938;1:413-30. Noda H, Adey WR. These authors argue that despite the marked suppression of desynchronized sleep provoked by tricyclic antidepressants neither selective serotonine reuptake inhibitors and mono-amino-oxydase nor learning and memory are disrupted. In: The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming, Antrobus, J. S. & Bertini, M. Assoc Psychophysiol Stud Sleep. As a matter of fact, manifestations of dreaming have been identified in many species, including chickens, chimpanzees, cats, rats and in some birds. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. If, as an advantage, in humans such manifestations of dreams can be related to their reported content, in non-human animals it is possible to record with a high degree of accuracy not only the motor and the vegetative manifestations of dremaing but the electro-oscillograms of many central structures as well. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. J Abnorm Psychol 1982;91:433-6. In rats subjected to early desynchronized sleep deprivation, ejaculation was deeply reduced in adulthood (114,115), what is a profound impairment of a very important instinctive behavior. Despite such facts, some physiologists do not agree that heart rate and blood pressure decrease during desynchronized sleep. Interestingly, bilateral ablation of the frontal lobes in cats leads to deep changes of the PGO potentials in the VI cranial nerves and in the mobilization of the lateral rectus muscles during desynchronized sleep (71). Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophanes, nearly 2,400 years ago, were opposed to the prevailing view of the phantastikon, that is, mystic apparitions, and to the premonitory character of dreams as their main characteristics. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). Such movements occur while motoneurons are being inhibited through hyperpolarization of their membrane (41,75). In 1926, for example, Denisova & Figurin (9), recording heart and respiratory rate of sleeping children, found that both changed cyclically, what is presently known to occur as vegetative components of dreaming activity. Thus, any study of dreaming also lends itself to psychological scrutiny and clinical application. The first oscillation lasts around two hours, when sleep attains its deepest level; the ensuing cycles last less and their depth tends to decrease until arousal finally occurs, a sequence that recent research has fully confirmed. Physiol Behav 1972;8:363-71. Neuroscience 1997;78:13-38. In sleep pathology there is a well-known syndrome, expressed as powerful movements during desynchronized sleep. Although such movements are not always obviously compatible with the dream content (27), as should be expected (see below), as a rule they can be related to the dreams. In rats, heart rate is clearly accelerated during the periods of oniric activity, expressed as rostrum+vibrissae, eye, head, ear and limb movements. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. The waking level of aminergic modulation falls to 50% during synchronized sleep and to nearly zero in desynchronized sleep (121,122). The authors concluded that the correlation they found was probably involved in memory consolidation but such coincidence may indicate that during dreaming memorized information is being revoked to integrate a given dreaming pattern. Vertes RP. Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, Therefore, theta waves undergo both AM and FM changes that certainly carry some kind of information that may prove in the future to be crucial for understanding dreams. 1996 Sep 12;383(6596):163-6. doi: 10.1038/383163a0. Soja PJ, Lopez-Rodriguez F, Morales FR, Chase MH. Heart rate decreases down to nearly 150 bpm 1 or 2 seconds following the cessation of eye movements. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. Brain Res Bull 1992;28:479-84. 66. Science 1966;153:206-8. 26. 57. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. During REM sleep, several physiological changes also take place. Their data do not depart from modern studies of the same kind. HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1992;2:759-63. Another change of the electro-oscillograms we disclosed in rats by carefully analyzing their time-course while a dream is on (as well as during attentive wakefulness) is the presence of short periods of desynchronization that interrupt or superimpose on theta waves. It is interesting to consider that while muscles all over the body are paralyzed during sleep, respiration is little affected, except that some muscles in the upper respiratory airways are inhibited during sleep (44). 51. Roldan E, Weiss TT. By measuring the voltage of the potential generated by the rotation it is possible to know if the object is near or far. Physiol., Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New york 1972:1-165. 102. & Bertini, M. Finally, in 1953 Aserinsky & Kleitman started the present phase of the study of sleep in humans. This issue we will concentrate only on a few hypotheses as commented upon concerning visual movements, the of! 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